Occam's Razor, "the law of succinctness", applies to many areas of our natural world and to the world of instructional design. This is especially true of the instructional sequence phase of instructional design. The instructional sequence centers on a learning cycle, learning theory, or learning model. For the purposes of this discussion, cycles, models, and theories have similar meaning in their application to the instructional sequence. The outcome of the instructional sequence is to create a plan which describes how instruction will occur. It is the path that the instruction must take so to optimize the probability that learning occurs. It centers on a learning model, and typically includes instructional plans (e.g., lesson plans, unit plans, workshop plans), signposts, breadcrumbs, and materials/equipment lists. These elements must fit together like the cells of the honeycomb. As nature constantly reminds us, when given the choice of simplicity or complexity, simplicity rules out. Certainly complexities must be addressed and dealt with. However, once completed, the instructional sequence must be succinct, replicable, and usable.
Learning models & Instructional Paths
Merrill's selection criteria
When designing the instructional sequence, think about the logical progression of learning. Whether this is described by a cycle, theory, or model, a particular path must be followed in order for learning to occur. Following this path increases the probability that the intended learning will occur. If this is true, then there should be learning models which are more favorable for a given instructional problem than others. There have been many noteworthy learning models that effectively describe the way in which learning occurs. They describe the "path" the learner takes from little knowledge to advanced knowledge, or from novice skill to expert skill. And while no one model or theory works with all situations, there are some guidelines to consider when slecting and using a learning model for the learning path you are describing. Merrill, 2002, performed a metaanalysis of mutliple instructional design theories and learning theories in an attempt to uncover common attributes or as he describes "first principles" which can guide us in our pursuit of creating effective instruction. According to Merrill (2002), learning environments must incorporate five "first principles". Learning environments should: (1) engage learners in solving real-world problems; (2) activate learner's existing knowledge and link this with new knowledge; (3) demonstrate new knowledge to the learner; (4) have learner apply new knowledge; and (5) integrate new knowledge into the learner's world. Merrill's "first principles" are good guidelines for the learning model selected for a given design.
Learner characteristics and instructional paths
When selecting which learning model is most appropriate for a given instructional problem, consider the age-level of the learner, their level of expertise, and their motivation towards training. As a general rule, well-defined instructional paths are most appropriate for learners who are highly motivated, or have little expertise or familiarity with the topic, or have lower metacognitive skill (younger learners). Ill-defined instructional paths should be geared towards learners who are poorly motivated, or have high expertise and familiarity with the topic, or have higher metacognitive ability. It is more than likely that the instructional model employed for a given instructional sequence will afford for well-defined and ill-defined instructional paths. It is also likely that the instructional designer will utilize well-defined and ill-defined instructional paths as part of the overall instructional sequence that is created as to best meet the needs of the learner. For instance, what if there are learners with low skill and poor motivation? This circumstance conflicts with well-structured and ill-structured in terms of low skill and poor motivation, respectively. This would be a classic example where the instructional sequence would need to respond accordingly. This might mean modifying or deviating from a learning model so that the instructional sequence can be best tailored to the needs of the learners. For a comparison and application of well-defined and ill-defined paths in relation to learner characteristics refer to the below table.
Table 1. Well-defined Instuctional path vs. Ill-defined Instructional path
Well-defined Instructional path
Ill-defined Instructional path
Highly motivated learners
Poorly motivated learners
low expertise/skill/familiarity
High expertise/skill/familiarity
lower age/metacognitive skill
Higher age/metacognitive skill
Degree of Linearity
We can measure the relative degree to which a given instructional path is well-defined or ill-defined through something referred to here as the degree of linearity. The degree of linearity (y) is the number of steps and instructions that are given to the learner throughout a given lesson over an elapsed period of time (x). If we plot degree of linearity (y) with respect to elapsed instructional time (x) we get the below function:
I propose that there is an inverse relationship between the degree of linearity (y) and elapsed instructional time (x), as described by (y=1/x). As the number of steps and instructions increases within a given lesson or learning activity, so too does the degree of linearity. In general, the degree of linearity should decrease as instruction elapses. An example of this would be when learning to drive a car. The first time a student gets behind the wheel, more than likely there is a highly directed instructional sequence that the new driver is taken through. Over time, however, the number of instructions from the driving instructor to the driving student decreases, until eventually the driving student receives no instructions and can drive alone. When considering the instructional sequence, take into consideration the relative degree of linearity for a given instructional sequence.
Finding a "best-fit"
There are many factors to consider when selecting a learning model that is most appropriate for the instruction you are designing. There are many criteria that can be used to guide the selection of a learning model for a given project. Merrill's first five principles, the learners' age-level, motivation, and relative expertise, are good starting points, although may not encompass all necessary learner and/or environmental elements for a given project. In either case, follow a logical process for selecting the learning model, as well as recording a rationale for how the model was selected. For instance, there are many well-established learning models which describe in compelling ways how learning occurs. And while there is no grand-universal-model, there are models which will serve certain types of instruction better than others. For instance, if you are creating instruction for a CPR-First-Aid course, the skill sets will largely be hands-on. The learners will need to practice and demonstrate their ability to perform at a high level the skills set forth in the session - like resuscitation, heimlich maneuver, and so on. A learning model for these types of skills would be one that has the learners situated in scenarios where they can make decisions and perform maneuvers much like would be required in a real-life situations. There are several models which would be applicable to this sort of training. One example is Goal Based Scenarios (GBS). GBS would be applicable because the learner could be presented with a particular "condition" and would be required to act and treat the "condition". This training would allow the learner to become familiar with the situational knowledge of treatment prior to actually performing treatment on pretend or actual patients. A model that would not be appropriate for this type of initial CPR training would be coaching or cognitive apprenticeship. Both of these models would require the learner to be familiar with the situational treatment protocols prior to going out in the "field" and performing on actual patients. Cognitive apprenticeship and/or coaching would be appropriate for learners who had gained preliminary familiarity with CPR and First-aid. So we find that the learning model on which the instructional sequence is centered is paramount to the overall success of the designed instruction. Here are four models and their essential elements of instruction.
Table 1. Learning Models and their essential elements.
Instructional plans (e.g., lesson plans, unit plans, workshop plans)
Instructional plans describe and prescribe how instruction should occur. The plans that you design can take on many forms and styles. It is the instructional designer's role to design a form and style that works for the instruction that is being created and that can be heretofore made into a template for succeeding plans. Effective plans allow for the propagation of the educational and/or training which has been designed. The plans should be written in such a way that an instructor of like knowledge, ability and expertise could “run” the session as intended. Keep in mind that some plans may require the learner also serve the role of the instructor. For instance, creating an instructional plan for a first-aid manual designed to instruct an injured person to treat a severed limb.
Signposts
Signposts are icons which convey a meaning and prompt an action from the learner. They are a necessary component of the instructional sequence because they guide the learner and instructor through the learning sequence. Signposts can be well designed and placed, or they can be poorly placed, potentially leading to confusion and frustration. Some sign posts that have been used in instructional sequences use simple icons which can be easily understood and convey a consistent meaning. The benefit of using such icons is that the associated with an instructed action from the learner. Initially, the icon will need to be described in terms of what the learner is expected to do when a signpost is encountered. However, once the signpost has been described along with the expected actions from the learner, then the icon can be used to focus the learner's attention on the given instructional event. The icon becomes the instructions. For instance, the following table demonstrates icons which can be used as signposts for learning activities such as discussion and reading.
Table 2. Signpost examples
"Signpost"
Proposed meaning
Discussion
Reading
Breadcrumbs
If you think of the story Hansel and Gretel you will recall that breadcrumbs were dropped in the forest as Hansel and Gretel navigated an unfamiliar path. What was their reasoning? The idea was that they could get back safely by just following the trail of breadcrumbs that were thrown on the forest floor. This was a good idea, except that birds ate the breadcrumbs! (see below figure). Hansel and Gretel were challenged to return as they did not know of a safe path back. As an instructional designer, your role in creating the instructional sequence is to include breadcrumbs that can be used to assist the instructor and/or learner in keeping track of progress which has been made through the lesson, unit, or workshop. Breadcrumbs may be in the form of checklists, questionnaires, discussions, and any other activity which communicates to the instructor and/or learner their relative position in the instructional path. As a designer, think of a logical way to inform the learner and instructor where they are with respect to the instructional path.
Figure 1. Hansel and Gretel and improved breadcrumbs
Instructional Sequence
Occam's Razor, "the law of succinctness", applies to many areas of our natural world and to the world of instructional design. This is especially true of the instructional sequence phase of instructional design. The instructional sequence centers on a learning cycle, learning theory, or learning model. For the purposes of this discussion, cycles, models, and theories have similar meaning in their application to the instructional sequence. The outcome of the instructional sequence is to create a plan which describes how instruction will occur. It is the path that the instruction must take so to optimize the probability that learning occurs. It centers on a learning model, and typically includes instructional plans (e.g., lesson plans, unit plans, workshop plans), signposts, breadcrumbs, and materials/equipment lists. These elements must fit together like the cells of the honeycomb. As nature constantly reminds us, when given the choice of simplicity or complexity, simplicity rules out. Certainly complexities must be addressed and dealt with. However, once completed, the instructional sequence must be succinct, replicable, and usable.
Learning models & Instructional Paths
Merrill's selection criteria
When designing the instructional sequence, think about the logical progression of learning. Whether this is described by a cycle, theory, or model, a particular path must be followed in order for learning to occur. Following this path increases the probability that the intended learning will occur. If this is true, then there should be learning models which are more favorable for a given instructional problem than others. There have been many noteworthy learning models that effectively describe the way in which learning occurs. They describe the "path" the learner takes from little knowledge to advanced knowledge, or from novice skill to expert skill. And while no one model or theory works with all situations, there are some guidelines to consider when slecting and using a learning model for the learning path you are describing. Merrill, 2002, performed a metaanalysis of mutliple instructional design theories and learning theories in an attempt to uncover common attributes or as he describes "first principles" which can guide us in our pursuit of creating effective instruction. According to Merrill (2002), learning environments must incorporate five "first principles". Learning environments should: (1) engage learners in solving real-world problems; (2) activate learner's existing knowledge and link this with new knowledge; (3) demonstrate new knowledge to the learner; (4) have learner apply new knowledge; and (5) integrate new knowledge into the learner's world. Merrill's "first principles" are good guidelines for the learning model selected for a given design.
Learner characteristics and instructional paths
When selecting which learning model is most appropriate for a given instructional problem, consider the age-level of the learner, their level of expertise, and their motivation towards training. As a general rule, well-defined instructional paths are most appropriate for learners who are highly motivated, or have little expertise or familiarity with the topic, or have lower metacognitive skill (younger learners). Ill-defined instructional paths should be geared towards learners who are poorly motivated, or have high expertise and familiarity with the topic, or have higher metacognitive ability. It is more than likely that the instructional model employed for a given instructional sequence will afford for well-defined and ill-defined instructional paths. It is also likely that the instructional designer will utilize well-defined and ill-defined instructional paths as part of the overall instructional sequence that is created as to best meet the needs of the learner. For instance, what if there are learners with low skill and poor motivation? This circumstance conflicts with well-structured and ill-structured in terms of low skill and poor motivation, respectively. This would be a classic example where the instructional sequence would need to respond accordingly. This might mean modifying or deviating from a learning model so that the instructional sequence can be best tailored to the needs of the learners. For a comparison and application of well-defined and ill-defined paths in relation to learner characteristics refer to the below table.
Table 1. Well-defined Instuctional path vs. Ill-defined Instructional path
Degree of Linearity
We can measure the relative degree to which a given instructional path is well-defined or ill-defined through something referred to here as the degree of linearity. The degree of linearity (y) is the number of steps and instructions that are given to the learner throughout a given lesson over an elapsed period of time (x). If we plot degree of linearity (y) with respect to elapsed instructional time (x) we get the below function:
I propose that there is an inverse relationship between the degree of linearity (y) and elapsed instructional time (x), as described by (y=1/x). As the number of steps and instructions increases within a given lesson or learning activity, so too does the degree of linearity. In general, the degree of linearity should decrease as instruction elapses. An example of this would be when learning to drive a car. The first time a student gets behind the wheel, more than likely there is a highly directed instructional sequence that the new driver is taken through. Over time, however, the number of instructions from the driving instructor to the driving student decreases, until eventually the driving student receives no instructions and can drive alone. When considering the instructional sequence, take into consideration the relative degree of linearity for a given instructional sequence.
Finding a "best-fit"
There are many factors to consider when selecting a learning model that is most appropriate for the instruction you are designing. There are many criteria that can be used to guide the selection of a learning model for a given project. Merrill's first five principles, the learners' age-level, motivation, and relative expertise, are good starting points, although may not encompass all necessary learner and/or environmental elements for a given project. In either case, follow a logical process for selecting the learning model, as well as recording a rationale for how the model was selected. For instance, there are many well-established learning models which describe in compelling ways how learning occurs. And while there is no grand-universal-model, there are models which will serve certain types of instruction better than others. For instance, if you are creating instruction for a CPR-First-Aid course, the skill sets will largely be hands-on. The learners will need to practice and demonstrate their ability to perform at a high level the skills set forth in the session - like resuscitation, heimlich maneuver, and so on. A learning model for these types of skills would be one that has the learners situated in scenarios where they can make decisions and perform maneuvers much like would be required in a real-life situations. There are several models which would be applicable to this sort of training. One example is Goal Based Scenarios (GBS). GBS would be applicable because the learner could be presented with a particular "condition" and would be required to act and treat the "condition". This training would allow the learner to become familiar with the situational knowledge of treatment prior to actually performing treatment on pretend or actual patients. A model that would not be appropriate for this type of initial CPR training would be coaching or cognitive apprenticeship. Both of these models would require the learner to be familiar with the situational treatment protocols prior to going out in the "field" and performing on actual patients. Cognitive apprenticeship and/or coaching would be appropriate for learners who had gained preliminary familiarity with CPR and First-aid. So we find that the learning model on which the instructional sequence is centered is paramount to the overall success of the designed instruction. Here are four models and their essential elements of instruction.
Table 1. Learning Models and their essential elements.
Learning Model
Essential Elements
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Keller's ARCS
Merrill's Phases of Instruction
Van Merrienboer's 4C-ID Model
Instructional plans (e.g., lesson plans, unit plans, workshop plans)
Instructional plans describe and prescribe how instruction should occur. The plans that you design can take on many forms and styles. It is the instructional designer's role to design a form and style that works for the instruction that is being created and that can be heretofore made into a template for succeeding plans. Effective plans allow for the propagation of the educational and/or training which has been designed. The plans should be written in such a way that an instructor of like knowledge, ability and expertise could “run” the session as intended. Keep in mind that some plans may require the learner also serve the role of the instructor. For instance, creating an instructional plan for a first-aid manual designed to instruct an injured person to treat a severed limb.
Signposts
Signposts are icons which convey a meaning and prompt an action from the learner. They are a necessary component of the instructional sequence because they guide the learner and instructor through the learning sequence. Signposts can be well designed and placed, or they can be poorly placed, potentially leading to confusion and frustration. Some sign posts that have been used in instructional sequences use simple icons which can be easily understood and convey a consistent meaning. The benefit of using such icons is that the associated with an instructed action from the learner. Initially, the icon will need to be described in terms of what the learner is expected to do when a signpost is encountered. However, once the signpost has been described along with the expected actions from the learner, then the icon can be used to focus the learner's attention on the given instructional event. The icon becomes the instructions. For instance, the following table demonstrates icons which can be used as signposts for learning activities such as discussion and reading.
Table 2. Signpost examples
Breadcrumbs
If you think of the story Hansel and Gretel you will recall that breadcrumbs were dropped in the forest as Hansel and Gretel navigated an unfamiliar path. What was their reasoning? The idea was that they could get back safely by just following the trail of breadcrumbs that were thrown on the forest floor. This was a good idea, except that birds ate the breadcrumbs! (see below figure). Hansel and Gretel were challenged to return as they did not know of a safe path back. As an instructional designer, your role in creating the instructional sequence is to include breadcrumbs that can be used to assist the instructor and/or learner in keeping track of progress which has been made through the lesson, unit, or workshop. Breadcrumbs may be in the form of checklists, questionnaires, discussions, and any other activity which communicates to the instructor and/or learner their relative position in the instructional path. As a designer, think of a logical way to inform the learner and instructor where they are with respect to the instructional path.
Figure 1. Hansel and Gretel and improved breadcrumbs
Resources:
Lesson Planning Ideas and Templates – Univ. of Hawaii
ISD Lesson Plan Template
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Comparative Table: Gagne vs. Keller
Designing the learners path
Merril's First Principles of Instruction